Women And Male Authority Figures - 1507 Words

In the fourteenth century, women were merely seen as subject to male authority figures. A wife was not seen as a competent adult because they were seen as so dependent on their husband (Bennett 104-105). After a marriage anything she owned became possessed by her husband (Bennett 104-105). Women who manipulated their husband and gained control of his assets defied the norm of women’s position in the fourteenth century. The church was a major part of Medieval England and controlled many peoples lives. The church and aristocracy was controlled by men. The origins of inferiority between men and women come back to the first book of the bible Genesis where it states, â€Å"your desire will be for your husband†¦ and he will rule over you,† because the church had such a large influence, the Bible was law. A women was also considered inferior because God created men before women. Women were in every way seen as individuals crested to obey and give pleasure to the male spec ies. This role of submissive was very hard for women to accept. Women were defined by their husbands’ social status, land ownership, and wealth. Marriage was not in a women’s control either. The families decided on the husband and if they were of poor social status the woman would fall under that as well. The only other option for women was to become a nun. Women and men tended to have juxtaposed views on how each other was treated. Many women followed this way of life but others had conflicting views on where theShow MoreRelatedHills Like White Elephants By Ernest Hemingway And The Babysitter By Robert Coover1682 Words   |  7 Pagesand examined how a male writer portrays a woman in the reading? Many times, in a literature written by a male writer there is a dominant ideology of having the male character have a superior authority to the woman in the story. The two stories where this is clearly seen is in â€Å"Hills like White Elephants† by Ernest Hemingway a nd â€Å"The Babysitter† by Robert Coover. Both these stories show the strong influence of the male character. Both stories portrayed women as vulnerable figures, it also shows menRead MoreThe Role of Men and Women in Ken Keseys One Flew over the Cuckoos Nest1181 Words   |  5 PagesIn a perfect world, men and women would live as equals, sharing power in all aspects of life. While this may be an appealing notion, it is nonexistent in society. Strong men are seen by women as abusive and dominating, while strong women are seen by men as castrating and emasculating. The text of Ken Kesey’s novel, One Flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest, in many ways, conforms to the structure of conventional male myth and asks the reader to accept that myth as a heroic pattern. From a masculinist perspectiveRead MoreThe Ritual At A Buddhist Temple Essay1394 Words   |  6 Pageson my observations, and how they connect to gender-related religious theory. The ritual I attended was at a Bu ddhist temple named West End Buddhist Temple in Mississauga. It was based on meditation led by a monk, the male instructor. It started with a story of Buddha, the divine figure of the religion, followed by a set of instructions and pieces of advice by the monk. This was accompanied with a guided silent meditation session. It ended with chants and prayers to god and the divine, Buddha. The ritualRead MoreDefying Stereotypes : A Look At Gender Relations1689 Words   |  7 Pagesact and incorporate these expectations into our social relations. Men, Ridgeway explains, are typically viewed as having more â€Å"competence, assertiveness, confidence, independence, forcefulness, and dominance† (Ridgeway, 2011) in social relations. Women, on the other hand, are viewed as valuing â€Å"emotional expressiveness, nurturance, interpersonal sensitivity, kindness, and responsiveness† (Ridgeway, 2011). According to Ridgeway, these gender stereotypes are basic knowledge in the contemp orary UnitedRead More`` Framed By Gender : How Gender Inequality Persist Within The Modern World Essay1679 Words   |  7 Pagesact and incorporate these expectations into our social relations. Men, Ridgeway explains, are typically viewed as having more â€Å"competence, assertiveness, confidence, independence, forcefulness, and dominance† (Ridgeway, 2011) in social relations. Women, on the other hand, are viewed as valuing â€Å"emotional expressiveness, nurturance, interpersonal sensitivity, kindness, and responsiveness† (Ridgeway, 2011). According to Ridgeway, these gender stereotypes are basic knowledge in the contemporary UnitedRead MoreThe Bloody Chamber By Angela Carter1565 Words   |  7 PagesThe Bloody Chamber by Angela Carter was published in 1979, a time when distinct patriarchal roles were present, and women were treated as objects in society. Carter demonstrates these gender roles in her collection, which undoubtedly deals with dark themes of sexuality and violence. Carter does not exhibit the patriarchal representations of gender in a black and white method; rather it is quite ambiguous. This essay will argue that Carter has failed to provide a valid critique of patriarchal representationsRead MoreThe Stereotypes Of Women In Shirley Jacksons The Lottery718 Words   |  3 Pagesto note is that when Jackson wrote â€Å"The Lottery†, women of all ages did not have equal rights to their male counterparts and this fact integrated into the story’s social hierarchy. There are two elements that are prevalent, one is the expectation of women to have different tasks from their male counterparts. The second is how women are treated by other male authoritative figures such as their husbands, or fathers when comparing the views of women in 1948, versus the views of today’s modern societyRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Richard IIi855 Words   |  4 Pagesshe commanding all, obey’d by none† (4.4. 783). Queen M argret, in William Shakespeare’s, Richard III, appears as a shadow of her former glory as England’s deposed Lancastrian ruler among current Yorkist rule. Widowed, deposed, and banished, she is a women deprived of power. Nevertheless, Margret plays a larger role than her shortcomings advertise. In Richard III, Shakespeare reinstates the Lancastrian monarch’s power by giving her a strong character and an adept control of language, specifically throughRead MoreDiscrimination Against Women s Rights1410 Words   |  6 PagesHowever, discrimination against women is something that many people have learned to overcome, but accepting and forgiving discrimination is another story. This will continue throughout the future years until males learn to share. There is so much more work to be done, most women don’t have the privilege to do anything still. But all these struggles and suffering has led to the women who are in power today. Unlike the women in the Western countries, women in Sudan have a whole different issue andRead MoreProviding Culturally Sensitive Care For Somali Women Essay991 Words   |  4 PagesProviding Culturally Sensitive Care for Somali Women In order to provide the highest quality of patient care, healthcare professionals need to understand that each patient is unique; their conditions, ethnicity and their culture. Culture seems to play a major role, especially when providing care to minorities. Somali women are an exception when providing culturally sensitive care. The sole purpose of this report is to understand the values and perception of Western medicine of female Somali patients

Differences Between High Status And Low Status Children Essay

This paper will look at the differences in high-status children and low-status children. The author will discuss two children who exhibit these behaviors with and how differently they react to people and situations. Using the readings and theories of Erikson, Piaget, Vygotsky, Bandura, and Kohlberg to address their characteristics. These theorists have researched and developed insight into children’s stages and readily explain their behaviors, thereby allowing for a greater understanding and insight into children. Keywords: Low-status, High-status Social Relations in Middle Childhood 3 Between grades one through six, which is approximately 6 years of age to eleven years of age, children place priority and importance of popularity, which increases over the elementary school years, this reaches its peak in late middle school and in the early high school years. Studies show that children in grades one through four consider popularity more important than friendship. It was also found that early and middle adolescents generally place more emphasis on conforming and being part of a popular group than younger or older children do. The low-status group, which hope for acceptance into the high-status groups may get some attention, however, rarely do they obtain full acceptance. Erikson, Piaget, Vygotsky, Bandura, and Kohlberg all have theories that address theShow MoreRelatedEffects of Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity on a Child1542 Words   |  7 Pagessocioeconomic status of a family and their ethnicity has a substantial effect on their child’s earl y learning and determines how much their child will accomplish through life. Life events from before birth to three years old will have significant impact on brain development (Nelson, 1999). Socioeconomic status limits how much a family could provide to aid a child’s development. Middle-class families can better prepare their children with opportunities for success than families with low household incomeRead MoreSocioeconomic Status And Health Care933 Words   |  4 PagesAccording to About.com (Elizabeth Boskey, 2014), socioeconomic status is defined as a arrangement of elements including income, level of education, and occupation. It is a way of looking at how individuals or families fit into society using economic and social measures that have been shown to influence individuals health and well-being. Socioeconomic status is broken into three categories: high, middle, and low social economic status. These three categories are used to describe the three areasRead MoreH ow Socioeconomic Status Affects Cognitive Development of Children1722 Words   |  7 Pages The development of children can depend on many factors, one of the important ones being socioeconomic status (SES). SES can be defined as a multidimensional construct, including measures of social factors such as power, prestige and hierarchical social status, and economic resources (Hackman and Farah, 2009). Child development can be studied from multiple dimensions such as physical, mental, social, and emotional development among others. For the purposes of this study, I will be focusing on howRead MoreAnalysis Of The Article Gold Kiwifruit Consumed With An Iron Fortified Breakfast Cereal 1459 Words   |  6 Pagesbreakfast cereal meal improves iron status in women with low iron stores: a 16-week randomised controlled trial† by Beck et al., 2010 will be critically appraised. This article investigates whether women’s Fe status could be improved by consuming a Fe-fortified brea kfast cereal and milk with gold kiwifruit (high in ascorbic acid, lutein and zeaxanthin) compared with consuming the same breakfast with banana (low in ascorbic acid, lutein and zeaxanthin) with low Fe stores, each day for 16 days. IronRead MoreThe Attainment Of Wealth And Social Status1479 Words   |  6 PagesThe attainment of wealth and social status has been the goal for human beings since the beginning of civilizations. Socioeconomic status [SES] is defined â€Å"as a measure of one’s level of education and income† (Friedman, H., Schustack, 2012, pg.420). The factors that contribute to one’s success have dumbfounded the masses. What makes a person more successful? Some may say the combination of hard work and hint of luck is the key to success. However, it recent years psychologists have questioned whetherRead MoreSocioeconomic Factors Of A Student s Life And Lower Academic Outcomes1711 Words   |  7 PagesOctober). In addition, connections have been es tablished between disadvantage in the context of a student’s life and lower academic outcomes (Gorski, September 2013, p. 49). The aim of this paper is to consider the impact of socioeconomic disadvantage in the lived curriculum and to identify strategies to neutralize these disadvantages. This paper will address the extent to which socioeconomic factors influence learning outcomes, and why low socioeconomic backgrounds have an impact. It will then goRead MoreEducation Is The Most Important Actuary1366 Words   |  6 Pagesindividual to be successful specific culture and society. Though Education is a lifelong process yet it is commonly considered in its narrow sense. Both common man and nation have some expectation from Education. They expect that education must develop children into matured, dynamic, resourceful human being with strong moral character who can serve himself his family and nation as well as an ideal. Moral values and character should be inherited into a child at early age in home and at school at elementaryRead MoreStudents Learn Differently. There Are Four Types Of Learners,1275 Words   |  6 Pagesaffects their learning in school. One crucial factor that has impact on a student is their socioeconomic status. Students continuously are shaped by their environment in which they surround themselves to. Teachers and schools need to comprehend demographic characteristics in order to utilize resources effectively to benefit the students. Many research show that students’ socioeconomic status is an important indicator to students’ achievement in school. In the 2000s, poverty rates increased in theRead MoreEssay on Helping Students With a Low Socioeconomic Status1528 Words   |  7 Pageslearning. The issue that many young children are facing, however, is that all of these factors can be greatly influenced by the Socioeconomic Status (SES) of their family. Unfortunately, up until recently it was virtually unknown how teachers could help these â€Å"at risk† children, which caused an increase in the likelihood of children dropping out of school or repeating a grade. However, it is now becoming clear that there are ways that educators can help ensure children have successful academic careersRead MoreSocioeconomic Status and Health Issues1380 Words   |  5 Pages Socioeconomic status (a measurement of income, education, and occupation) measures an individuals social standing in society. Low socioeconomic status is often linked to a depravity of essential material resources and heightened psychological stress variables. The importance of researching the effects is underlined by its association to a number of adverse health effects and the increasing prevalence of poverty within many countries in the world. Recent studies have investigated the possible

Still I Rise - Maya Angelou free essay sample

Describe at least one memorable use of language in the text. Explain how this use of language helped you to understand one or more important idea in the text. â€Å"Still I rise† a poem by Maya Angelou is about a black woman’s point of view towards a white person in the 1900’s. Angelou used various language techniques, rhetorical questions, metaphor, and similes to show us her thoughts at the time when she was being ruled over. Self-esteem was the reason that the poet wrote this poem in the first place and it was self-esteem that she overcome the obstacles she faced in life. Firstly, Angelou uses similes to compare herself to nature that unremittingly â€Å"rises†. Although she was being treated poorly, â€Å"you may trod me in the very dirt†, but her pride and resilience swallowed that unforgivingly thing to do to a human being and â€Å"still, like dust, I’ll rise†. We will write a custom essay sample on Still I Rise Maya Angelou or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The simile â€Å"like dust, I’ll rise† show the reader that she is strong and will-powered who â€Å"rise† seamlessly. This language feature helped me understand that you should not give up easily when downed, because you will only lose pride for yourself. Having pride for you means much, it can about help you do anything you want to accomplish and, for Angelou she hopes to have her freedom taken back to her. Secondly, metaphor was used by Angelou to describe her; she described herself as something that has liberty over herself. She looked at herself as something that’s free and pure despite her painful terrorizing past, â€Å"A black ocean, leaping and, wide†. This portrays that she is free who can do anything she wants. â€Å"I’m a black ocean leaping and, wide† this tells the reader that she has power over her life now, big and powerful who can’t be controlled or be abused by anyone. Thirdly, the poet used abundant of rhetorical questions that were really powerful to show us that even in difficult times you should have confidence in you. Angelou asks powerful questions every time, after she makes a point. â€Å"Does it come as a surprise that I dance like I’ve got diamonds at the meeting of my thighs? † This was asked after she made a point, and it made it come out more significant that made it convincing to the reader and the person she was referring to that she has power and that she is a one mighty person. This helped me understand that if you want something, freedom for that matter, you should fight for it, it can’t be given on to you on a clean plate and, by having genuine confidence it will take you there. In conclusion, the once helpless woman who was a victim of slavery is now free from all of it, the chains are finally broken, and it was portrayed potently by Maya Angelou. She crafted the poem bits by bits of language features that were really interesting that couldn’t be forgotten without a hitch. No matter how difficult life can be, there will always be hope that it can be amended, and if you see the opportunity you should take it.

Views on Writing Style by Plato, Aristotle and Dante

Plato Plato was one of the first philosophers to discuss the importance of the way in which a message is presented. Plato developed his method of coming to truth, and he called it dialectics. Dialectics is a process of coming to truth in which two opposing sides, thesis and antithesis, are presented by two people in the form of argumentation.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Views on Writing Style by Plato, Aristotle and Dante specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Every person states their opinion and supports it with arguments. In the end of a dialogue or a debate, the truth is supposed to emerge from the clash of the two opinions, and the defeated one is morally obliged to accept the force of a better argument. In this process, logic or reason is crucial. Plato believed that each of the persons in a debate has to obey logic, and can examine the logic of the opponent’s argumentation, and if any contradictions o r fallacies are found, they can reveal them, thereby winning the argument. Since reason is very important to Plato, he strongly opposed the use of any other rhetorical devices. He claimed that appeal to emotion in an argument is not only wrong but dangerous. For that reason, he is known for saying that poets have no place in an Ideal state. Aristotle Aristotle realizes Plato’s idea of rhetoric expressed in â€Å"Phedre†. This idea, for Aristotle, still corresponds to dialectics. Which means that persuasion has to have its foundation in logic. However, there is a difference between rhetoric and pure dialectics in that the former is concerned with style and the latter with the truth. In Aristotle’s works, the two are not mutually exclusive but complementary. The differences and similarities between rhetoric and dialectics open up the problem of language and thought. Plato and Aristotle solve this problem favoring thought. They claim that thought can always find a word through which logos and truth will speak. In that light, language has to emancipate itself from myth, and be subordinated to logos. Aristotle, however, finds that this task is impossible; language has an inseparable mythic element to it. In speech, this mythic component gives strength to what is said.Advertising Looking for essay on rhetoric? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In the end, he claims that there is no separation of argumentation and style, and a person has to incorporate style into the delivery of a message. It is, nonetheless, crucial to respect the logos, without which any sort of style is vacuous. Dante Dante was an Italian poet, who lived in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The period in which he lived is important because it is the period of renaissance and the rebirth of Ancient Greek ideas. In his view on rhetoric, Dante is closer to Aristotle, he believes that wisdom without rhetoric and eloquen ce is worth little, but eloquence without wisdom is worse. It is crucial to utilize all the potentials of language as a means to deliver the truth to the masses. In this immense potential of language to appeal to human emotions, Dante recognized a real threat and danger. For that reason, he found a place in his Inferno for those who use language to take advantage of people. That place was in the eighth circle, alongside thieves and falsifiers. He also placed poets like Horace and Ovid in this circle, and admitted that they are his likes. One can find the influence of Plato in these claims. From this ambivalence, it is evident that he was struggling with the problem of language and thought just like his great masters Plato and Aristotle. This essay on Views on Writing Style by Plato, Aristotle and Dante was written and submitted by user Francisco Talley to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Begum Surname Meaning and Family History

Begum Surname Meaning and Family History Begum is a Muslim honorific title for, or means of addressing, a respectable lady. It did not originally develop as a surname, but over time has been adopted as a last name by many unmarried women, especially in Bangladesh and Pakistan. Begum is quickly becoming a fairly common surname in America and England. A frequency map created by James Cheshire in 2012 puts Begum as the most popular surname in Londons  Tower Hamlets and south Camden neighborhoods. Surname Origin:  Muslim Alternate Surname Spellings:  BAIGUM, BEGAM Famous People With the Begum Last Name Hamida Banu Begum - Wife of the  second Mughal Emperor, Humayun, and mother of Mughal Emperor, Akbar.Mehnaz Begum - Pakistani singerFatma Begum -  Indias first female film directorAmeena Begum - Wife of Sufi master, Inayat Khan Where Is the Begum Surname Most Common? The last name Begum  is the 191st most common surname in the world, according to surname distribution information from  Forebears. It is most prevalent in India, where it ranks as the 37th most common last name, followed by Bangladesh (50th) and Fiji (92nd). Within India, the name is most prevalent in  Telangana, where it is the most common surname, followed by  Jammu and Kashmir, Pondicherry, Assam, and Delhi. WorldNames PublicProfiler  does not include surname data from India, but within Europe Begum is found most frequently in West Midlands, Yorkshire and Humberside, South East, North East and East Midlands, England. The name is also fairly common in Oslo, Norway. Genealogy Resources for the Surname BEGUM Begum Family Crest - Its Not What You ThinkContrary to what you may hear, there is no such thing as a Begum family crest or coat of arms for the Begum surname.  Coats of arms are granted to individuals, not families, and may rightfully be used only by the uninterrupted male-line descendants of the person to whom the coat of arms was originally granted. FamilySearch - BEGUM GenealogyExplore over 340,000  results from digitized  historical records and lineage-linked family trees related to the Begum surname on this free website hosted by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. GeneaNet - Begum RecordsGeneaNet includes archival records, family trees, and other resources for individuals with the Begum surname, with a concentration on records and families from France and other European countries. The Begum Genealogy and Family Tree PageBrowse genealogy records and links to genealogical and historical records for individuals with the Begum surname from the website of Genealogy Today. Ancestry.com: Begum SurnameExplore over 260,000  digitized records and database entries, including census records, passenger lists, military records, land deeds, probates, wills and other records for the Begum surname on the subscription-based website, Ancestry.com. References: Cottle, Basil.  Penguin Dictionary of Surnames. Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1967. Dorward, David.  Scottish Surnames. Collins Celtic (Pocket edition), 1998. Fucilla, Joseph.  Our Italian Surnames. Genealogical Publishing Company, 2003. Hanks, Patrick and Flavia Hodges.  A Dictionary of Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1989. Hanks, Patrick.  Dictionary of American Family Names. Oxford University Press, 2003. Reaney, P.H.  A Dictionary of English Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1997. Smith, Elsdon C.  American Surnames. Genealogical Publishing Company, 1997

Rape in Ancient Societies

Rape in Ancient Societies Introduction One way to understand the view of ancient men is to rely on the insights provided by a gifted writer. Shakespeare is still relevant in the 21st century as he was during his time because of his ability to penetrate human nature. He does not only understand human nature but he is also a master when it comes to explaining it in terms and images readily understood by common men.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Rape in Ancient Societies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Shakespeare has another talent and it is his ability to look into ancient history and draw inspiration from there. One of his important works that relates to this topic is the play entitled The Rape of Lucrece. In this play Shakespeare sheds light on the mentality of the rapist and victim in ancient times. The most poignant part of the play is when Lucrece, after securing an oath from husband and father to avenge the wrong done to her, committed suicide.[1] This is an important scene because it shows the way society view the victim of the rape. Even if the rapist was the evildoer, the act itself has somehow transferred his wickedness into the victim, forcing her to kill herself. It has to be pointed out that rape is a crime that is difficult to prove. In a time when there were no scientific means to prove sexual assault it is difficult for a woman to build a clear case against a rapist especially if there were no witnesses. Going back to the story of Lucrece, her suicide was necessary to prove to everyone that she did nothing wrong. In the words of one commentary, â€Å"her death is to function as the ultimate sign of her innocence.†[2] Her family believed her story. It was Tarquin who forced her to sin against her body and therefore there was no need to commit suicide. However, her reputation suffers because at the time of the sexual act, although it must be considered rape, she allowed it to happen. Shak espeare wrote this play based on what he knows about ancient societies such as Greece and Rome. Before going any further it is important to have a clear understanding of the nature of rape. Jane Gallop, in The Daughter’s of Seduction has this to say: The notions of integrity and closure in the text are like that of virginity in a body. They assume that if one does not respect the boundaries between inside and outside, one is ‘breaking and entering,’ violating a property. As long as the fallacies of integrity and closure are upheld, a desire to penetrate becomes a desire to rape.[3]Advertising Looking for research paper on ancient history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The above statement also reveals an important feature of the act of rape that it begins in the mind. It begins with desire and the rapist is guilty even before he has committed the act. This must serve as a strong deterrent to rape . But the status of women in ancient societies was so low that men can were able to do what they please. Sexual assault was not as clearly defined and many of the guilty were left unpunished. It is now time to examine if the Greeks have a better understanding of the violent nature of rape. Ancient Greece The Greeks are known for their wisdom but even their enlightened rulers and philosopher did not develop laws to protect women from rape and the consequences of rape. They did not create laws that acted as a deterrent to violating the consent of women. They did not create laws to send a message that their society honors women in the same way that it honors the men. There were laws about rape but the focus is to protect the property and the reputation of the husband. Women in ancient Greece did not directly benefit from these laws because these laws are dependent on their relationship to a man. They have to be a wife, daughter, mother, or a palleke, a slave-woman kept for the purpose of bearing children.[4] In other words the crime of rape must be punished to deal with the offense made against husband and father but not to the victim of the said crime. The idea that laws about rape were created for the benefit of men was made clear in the story of Euphiletus trial on the murder of Eratosthenes. Euphiletus said that he knew that Eratosthenes was seducing his wife and when he caught them in the act of adultery he killed him. The plot thickens when Euphiletus found himself on trial for the murder of an adulterer when their law justifies the murder of a person caught seducing a pallake. Euphiletus added that if the law justifies this act then how much more the husbands murderous rage against an adulterer.[5] Euphiletus went on to explain why seduction is more dangerous than rape and he said: The rapist incurs the hatred of his victim, the seducer corrupts the very soul of the woman and gains greater control over her than her husband has. The seducer thus gets the en tire household under his control, making it impossible for the husband to know the father of his wife’s children.[6] Euphiletus made an interesting point with regards to the laws against adultery, rape and seduction. But the importance of his statement is on how it sheds light on the mindset of ancient Greeks when it comes to their women. As one can observe rape was made evil not because it violated the women but because the act can produce unwanted children.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Rape in Ancient Societies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Thus, it can be interpreted as an act disadvantageous to the husband and protector of the female victim. For instance, in the case of a rapist attacking a man’s daughter, the rapist must be made to answer for his crime because the moment the daughter conceives after the rape, she would bring dishonor to the family. At the same time it raises a probl em when it comes to the responsibility of taking care of the child. There is no one who can help her raise the child. A rapist caught in the act of raping a man’s mother has to be punished because the act has brought shame to the family. There is also a possibility that the rapist has sired a child and this can be the root cause of a destructive family struggle later on. The same thing can be said about the raping the wife and the pallake. The end-goal is to erase all doubts that the children sired by these women are the legitimate heirs and not sired by a rapist and seducer. It is very clear that although Rome has sophisticated laws to deal with rape and seduction, all of these laws are for the benefit of men. Women are valued primarily as a bearer of children. Thus, their rights do not extend far from how they are perceived by the men in their household. These laws reveal a significantly different mindset when compared to the ideals of human rights and women’s rights in the 21st century. The concept of rape against women follows the same pattern as that of ancient Greece. The following statement clarifies the way sexual offenses were viewed during this time: â€Å"Sexual offenses by men involving women (rape, adultery, seduction, even sexual insults) were offenses against men’s authority over their household members.†[7] In ancient Greece adultery and rape were not clearly distinguished and the punishment was the same most of the time.[8] There is a simple explanation, â€Å"the victim of both crimes was not the person attacked but the man whose house she dwelt.†[9] Aside from the need to protect the family lineage these laws were created to protect the property of the men in a male-dominated society. Ancient Rome When Plato, Aristotle, and Socrates were formulating great ideas, Rome was still an unknown entity in the Western world. However, centuries later when Rome began to consolidate power to become a superpower in Euro pe, not much has change when it comes to how men treated women. According to one commentary: As is often true in patriarchal societies, the roles and identities of women in ancient Rome were generally seen as inseparable from those of the men to whom they were related. Roman women’s lives were expected to make a neat transition from the position of daughter and sister to that of wife and mother.[10]Advertising Looking for research paper on ancient history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More A Roman myth called the Rape of the Sabine Women reveals how women are viewed in this ancient society. In the said myth the Romans wanted to form an alliance with a neighboring tribe called the Sabine. But this tribe was clearly not interested with the proposal. Thus, the Romans abducted the daughters of the Sabine people and forced them to be their wives. Technically, they were raped, but the reaction of the women provided a glimpse into their mindset when it comes to the relationship between men and women. In the aftermath of the abduction the Sabine tribe declared war on Rome but their captured daughters pleaded with them and begged â€Å"not to force a choice between their family of birth and their family of marriage.†[11] In this instance, rape became a prelude to marriage demonstrating once again that if the male relatives of the victims of rape are unable to redeem their honor then the woman’s value was lost forever. In this case their value was redeemed by agre eing to be married to their captors. This particular myth was in reference to the early days of Rome. It is important to find out if there was a significant change that occurred when Rome became a Republic. But just the same, the laws against rape were created to protect the honor of the male relatives. As a matter of fact the insult done to the woman is also considered as an insult to the male relative.[12] If the male relatives took matters into their own hand and kill the rapist, the prosecution against them was known to be very lenient.[13] Nevertheless, nothing can be done to restore the victim’s value. The offense of rape was considered a capital charge and therefore the punishment can be death, banishment or diminution of the civil status of the rapist.[14] Everything was done to prove to the world that the family’s honor was redeemed and that the male relative will not lose face in public. But nothing can be done to restore the value of the victim. The idea tha t an unmarried Roman girl has to be chaste has frightening consequences for the rape victim because: â€Å"Chastity was a vital element in the girl’s value for marriage, and if she had been violated before, her future was irrevocably spoiled. It got worse if she conceived during the rape. She lost her value as an object of exchange between families and could redeem herself only by death.[15] It is time to find out if much has change after the passage of thousands of years. It is important to determine if modern societies were able to see the value of women beyond their relationship with a man. Modern Times There is a major difference in the way modern people view rape compared to the mindset of the ancient Greeks and Romans. In the ancient world rape is not just an act committed against a woman, it is an act committed against a woman under the supervision of a male relative. As a result, analysis of Greek and Roman literature will reveal that in their ancient societies adult ery and rape are seen as a similar offense against the head of the household. The modern view of rape is a sexual act committed without a woman’s consent.[16] But ancient Greece and ancient Rome had a different view than modern societies as pointed out by Harris: â€Å"our concept focuses on the absence of the victim’s consent †¦ ancient authors, on the other hand, had very different notions from ours about women’s power and ability to grant consent and were more interested in questions of honor when it came to judging acts of sexual violence.†[17] Although modern societies have a more sophisticated view of rape there are certain things that remained unchanged. Sex crimes still abound today. Rape is still a serious problem in the modern world as it was in ancient times. Rape still devalues women to the point that victims do not report rape to the authorities. A female victim of rape will find her value diminished even to the point that she may find i t hard to find a husband. Society still frowns on the victim even if it is not her fault. The laws of the modern world, however, offer more protection to the women regardless of her status.[18] She does not need the help of a male relative in order to defend her honor in court. Nevertheless, society still views a victim as damaged goods. When comparing ancient and modern societies one can see that the major difference is in the way women had liberated themselves from the clutches of a male-dominated world. Wives and daughters still believe in mutual respect when it comes to their relationship with husbands and fathers but the men can no longer treat them as if they were their property. The change in perception also created unexpected results such as the freedom of women to associate with men. In ancient times certain rules of conduct were in place to protect the honor of the family. The mere suspicion of undesirable behavior between man and woman must be dealt with swiftly either by a forceful dissolution of the relationship or marriage. But in the 21st century women can choose to have relationships with any man they would like. The unintended consequence is the emergence of a new form of rape called date rape. In layman’s terms date rape occurs between two people that are dating.[19] It can also happen between two acquaintances that happened to meet in a party.[20] The act is technically rape but the major difference is that the male perpetrator is known to the female victim. Rape can occur by the use of violence or by drugs.[21] The rapist can put a drug into a girl’s drink and when she passes out he takes advantage of her. It is also important to point out that date rape or simply rape can be the culmination of a series of violent acts. In other words the man can abuse the woman until the violence ends up in rape. It is of crucial importance to discuss date rape in the examination of the evolution of rape from ancient times to the present. Dat e rape is a remote possibility in ancient Greece and ancient Rome. The reported cases of violence committed by boyfriends against their girlfriends can only occur in the present time. Violent men and sex predators are dealt with swiftly and decisively in ancient Greece and Rome. The swift resolution of the problem is based on the fact that men are responsible for the women under their care. They will not allow stranger and other men to even come close to their daughters and wives if they are not assured of their true intentions. Much has been said about the abuses committed in a patriarchal society. There is no need to elaborate the fact that laws must cater to both men and women. However, something has to be done to develop a strong bond between families. It is not wise and practical to go back to ancient practices but one thing has to be made clear, they know how to protect their women. Today, sexual violence is on the rise and women are left to fend for themselves. Conclusion The re is not much difference between ancient Greece and ancient Rome when it comes to the way they deal with rape. Their laws were specifically designed to protect the honor and the property of the male relative. Rape, adultery, and seduction are all the same when the act is committed by someone who is not related to the female. In modern times women are no longer treated like property by their husbands and fathers. Women are free to mingle with other men. But this new found freedom has created a weakness that sex predators and unscrupulous men are willing to exploit. Something has to be done to strengthen the bond between family members without recreating the social structures of a male-dominated society. Bibliography Edwards, Catharine. Death in Ancient Rome. MA: Yale University Press, 2007. Gagarin, Michael and Elaine Fantham. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece  and Rome. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010. Harris, Edward. Democracy and the Rule of Law in Classical Ath ens. UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Harris, Edward. â€Å"Rape in Antiquity: Sexual Violence in the Greek and Roman Worlds.† Diotima. Last modified 2007. Larmour, David. Rethinking Sexuality: Focault and Classical Antiquity. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1998. Orr, Tamara. Frequently Asked Questions about Date Rape. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2007. Parrot, Andrea. Coping with Date Rape and Acquaintance Rape. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 1999. Quay, Sara. â€Å"Lucrece the Chaste: The Construction of Rape in Shakespeare’s The Rape of Lucrece.† Modern Language Studies 25, no. 2 (1995): 3-17. Schnabel, Stephanie. The Theme of Rape in Elizabethan and Jacobean Literary  Text. Berlin: Verlag, 2006. Wilkins, Jessica. Date Rape. New York: Crabtree Publishing, 2011. Footnotes Sara Quay, â€Å"Lucrece the Chaste: The Construction of Rape in Shakespeare’s The Rape of Lucrece,† Modern Language Studies 25, no. 2 (1995): 3 Catharine Edwards, Death in Ancient Rome (MA: Yale University Press, 2007), 181. Quay, 3. Harris 286. Ibid. Edward Harris, Democracy and the Rule of Law in Classical Athens (UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 284. David Larmour, Rethinking Sexuality: Focault and Classical Antiquity (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1998), 132. Ibid. Ibid. Michael Gagarin and Elaine Fantham,The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and  Rome (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 249. Ibid. Stephanie Schnabel, The Theme of Rape in Elizabethan and Jacobean Literary Text  (Berlin: Verlag, 2006), 10. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Edward Harris, â€Å"Rape in Antiquity: Sexual Violence in the Greek and Roman Worlds.†Ã‚  Diotima. Last modified 2007. Ibid. Ibid. Jessica Wilkins, Date Rape (New York: Crabtree Publishing, 2011), 7. Tamra Orr, Frequently Asked Questions about Date Rape (New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2007), 23. Andrea Parrot, Coping with Date Rape and Acquaintance Rape ( New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 1999), 49

Community Issue Article Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Community Issue Article - Essay Example The leading cause of pollution within urban areas is road transport, which accounts for more than 53 thousand premature deaths. Air pollution refers to the transfer of harmful and discomforting materials in the atmosphere and the environment. Air pollution has been one of the significant environmental issues affecting communities in United States since the advent of industrialization. Increased populations in the urban areas and traffic crowding have increased the toxic chemicals in the air within the cities. This traffic-caused pollution is associated with the likelihood of cancer together with pregnancy problems. Many of industries and power generation plants within the neighborhoods of United States communities emit harmful chemicals into the air. Though these companies assist in the development of the country’s economy, the emissions have adverse effects on people’s health. Scientific studies have also shown that a person’s risk of getting stroke can increase by 30% if they encounter ‘moderate’ amount of air pollution on a daily basis. The adverse effects of air pollution have attracted political and scientific attention. The evidence associating air pollution to premature deaths has made the nation wake up and realize that air pollution is a significant community issue in the urban areas and something need to be done to address it. According to a report by the Voice of America (1), people who die prematurely due to air pollution always die a decade earlier than they would have died. Premature deaths are prevalent in densely populated regions, which increase residential air pollution through heating and cooking emissions. This is most prevalent in the West and East coasts of United States. Air pollution from industries and power generating industries seem to be high and prevalent in Detroit, Chicago and Philadelphia. Gulf coast regions have high air pollution levels

Business ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 3

Business ethics - Essay Example This explains the principles of courtesy and respect. Despite the diversity that exists amongst many people concerning the acceptable ethical standards, it all boils down to societal expectations and provisions for good and bad (Shaw, 2011, p. 99). All ethical standards subscribe and should entangle with the society’s guidelines about what is right and wrong and the legal framework. The ethical standards at workplace should align with the societal moral principles such that when work ethics are breached, it directly go against the society’s moral guidelines. This essay aims at describing and analyzing, with reference to the ethical principles, a personal experience in which an issue with a moral gravity in business was resolved in order to bring out a comprehensive outlook into the decision. I witnessed a challenging situation in which an organization’s management decided to fire an employee on grounds that the employee had breached ethical of code of conduct. The employee in question, one Mr. Livingstone was a sales manager in an insurance firm. He had signed a contract to work for the firm in assisting it to restore market dominance that the firm had lost about 5 years ago due to the increased competition. The insurance industry in the last half decade had seen increased entry of organization that ended up stirring the competition. The firm Mr. Livingstone was working for had, in the process, greatly recorded low sales volume. Mr. Livingstone, a reputably popular sales manager with great success stories was hired to help transform the condition of the company. After 3 years of dedicated hard work, the organization’s performance in the highly competitive market greatly escalated to a point that they could hardly attend to all the clients or rather customers. The facilities and resources they had could not meet the demands of the customers because the number was extremely big. The organization was making great profits since they slightly raised

Henry Fayol Essay Example for Free

Henry Fayol Essay The Industrial Revolution of the 19th Century had paved the way to the development of organized systematic approaches to management. One of the most influential contributors to the management theory is Henry Fayol. He was the first management theorist who used the term ‘administration’. His theory is generally understood as administrative management theory or Fayolism. In his theory, he focused on the top-level management and managers’ actions, divided the activities of an organization into 6 groups and identified 6 managerial qualities for a manager. Importantly, he devised the famous 14 principles of management and 5 elements of management process. After this, people begin to study his theory and accord the full positive evaluation of his contribution until some decades after his death. This project assignment gives a review about the overview of life and the development of key work of management theorist, Henry Fayol. The aim of the project is to understand his concepts of management that are practical in top-level management. Another goal with the project is to examine his principles and elements of management as guidelines to be applied for all managers. And also, this project assignment gives some points of view about his theory contributes to modern concepts of management and his achievement in his lifetime. Henry Fayol was a French administrative management theorist and well-known as the father of modern management. He had a extraordinary life. He was born on 29 July 1841 in Istanbul, Turkey. Born that year, his father was an engineer who was appointed superintendent of works to build a bridge over the Golden Horn in Istanbul. A few years later, he and his family returned to France in 1847 when he was a child. Had a period time, Fayol studied at the mining school ‘Ecole Nationale Superieure des Mines’ in Saint-Etienne of France and eventually graduated in 1860. When he was age of 19, he began working as an engineer at a large mining company which a coal-mining and iron foundry combine, ‘Compagnie de Commentry-Fourchambeault-Decazeville’ in Commentry, France. Through his efforts, he was promoted as mines manager and ultimately became the managing director of the company in 1888. He changed company’s operation with his entrepreneurial approach to management thinking. At that time, the company employed more than 1,000 people. By 1900, the company was one of the largest producers of iron and steel in France and regarded as a vital national industry. In his career, he held that position over 30 years until 1918. Unfortunately, he was dead at age of 84 on 19 November 1925 in Paris, France. As early as 1900, Fayol formulated and wrote papers about his administrative management ideas from his own experiences. He examined the nature of management and first mentioned the ‘elements’ of administration which came from his book. His book was published in 1916 and was named as ‘Administration Industrielle et Generale’, a comprehensive theory of administration where he described and classified administrative management roles and processes. In 1949, Constance Storrs translated his book in English and entitled ‘General and Industrial Management’ which led to his theory was recognized by others. Henry Fayol emphasized the importance of taking a wider view on the organization as a whole, but the analytical approaches were similar. In his work, ‘General and Industrial Management’ which was published in English in 1949, he outlined his theory of general management which he believed could be applied to the administration of any industries. He enlightened managers on how to accomplish their managerial duties and the practices in which they should engage. He paid attention to the functions of administration and to this end he presented the principles and elements of management. As Fayol mentioned in his book: â€Å"Everyone needs some concepts of management; in the home, in affairs of state, the need for managerial ability is in keeping with the importance of the undertaking, and for individual people the need is everywhere in greater accordance with the position occupied.† excerpted from General and Industrial Management. Firstly, Fayol observed the organizational functioning from manager’s point of view. He found that all activities of an organization could be classified into six groups. These six groups of activities always present in a managerial post and are clearly shown in the following figure 2. Figure 2: 6 Activities of an Organization Technical activities relate to production, manufacture and adaptation; Commercial activities involve buying, selling and exchange; Financial activities search for capital and its optimum use; Security activities look for protection of property and persons; Accounting activities include stocktaking, balance sheets, costs and statistics; Managerial activities consist of planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling. Fayol pointed out that these activities exist in every organization. He argued that all managers required capability in all six functions. He also insisted that the managerial position determined the level of each function where full covered the total job and varying percentages should be assigned to each function. He further observed these six groups of activities and divided his approach of studying management into three parts: managerial qualities and training, general principles of management and elements of management process. In managerial qualities and training, Fayol identified the essential qualities required for a manager. According to his observation, the qualities of a manager have to possess under six aspects of qualities. These six aspects of qualities required are clearly shown in the following figure 3. Figure 3: 6 Managerial Qualities Physical qualities contain health, vigour and address; mental qualities contain ability to understand and learn, judgement, mental vigour and capability; moral qualities contain energy, firmness, initiative, loyalty, tact and dignity; general education means that having basic common sense; special knowledge means that peculiar to the function being performed; work experience mean that arising practice from the work. The possession of these qualities differs in degree between a manager and another. The implication is that a manager may be more suited to a post which emphasizes the need for one or other of the six functions. Fayol listed the need for management training and then identified 14 principles of management to serve as guidelines to help management resolve work problems and manage their affairs more effectively. The 14 principles of management are clearly shown in the following figure 4. Figure 4: 14 Principles of Management Division of work is the first principle. Fayol believed that if a person specializes, that person will concentrate in the same matters and acquire a special ability and accuracy that will increase the effectiveness and consequently the productivity. The right or power to give orders to subordinates is authority. Fayol remarked that authority comes with responsibility and vice versa. A manager should not be given authority without responsibility and should never be given responsibility without the associated authority to get the things done. Discipline is certainly essential for the smooth running of business. Employees must obey the organizational rules. Good discipline must result from an agreement between firm and employees with fairness and clear understanding of both sides. Fayol realized that different orders from different bosses may bring the problems and proposed the unity of command which means that an employee should receive instructions from one superior only in order to avoid conflict and confusion. Fayol explained that unity of direction is organizational activities with the same objective should be guided by one manager, using one plan. It is essential to focus the effort in the same direction and ensure action is properly coordinated. About subordination of individual interest to general interest, the interests of one employee should not be allowed to become more important than the group. It is important to separate personal and business affairs. While an employee is working, his mind and thoughts should be about the job and business goals. Every employee is worthy of his salary and it must be totally fair. In the best case, it would satisfy the firm and the employee. Also, rewards should be used as a tool of encouragement. This principle is analyzed by Fayol as the remuneration. Centralization is about proportion and individual cases. Fayol remarked that the degree of centralization varies according to different cases. This principle refers to how close employees are to the decision-making process. It is important to aim for an appropriate balance. The line of authority from top to the lowest ranks of management is scalar chain and it is related with the centralization. Fayol pointed out that some procedures need speedy actions and for this reason it is just needed the approval of the immediate superior. Employees should be aware of where they stand in the organization’s hierarchy or chain of command. Order refers to everything should have its place. Materials and people should be in right place at right time in the workplace. The workplace facilities must be clean, tidy and safe for employees. Fayol regarded equity as a sense of justice and fairness should pervade in an organization. Managers should be kind and fair to their subordinates at all times, both maintaining discipline as necessary and acting with kindness where appropriate. Fayol analyzed the stability of tenure of personnel is a reflection of a good running of the business, an employee takes time to adapt to a position and a turnover is not efficient. So, personnel planning should be a priority. Managers should strive to minimize employee turnover and ensure replacements at hand when vacancies arise. Initiative is commonly known as thinking out a plan and doing what it takes to make it happen. Fayol said that the initiative of all represents a great resource of strength for businesses and a manager should grant satisfaction to subordinates. Management should encourage employees to originate and carry out plans, this will increase their confidence and so they might feel more valuable for the company. This urging tends to boost levels of effort. Esprit de corps is the last principle. It emphasizes organizations should strive to foster team spirit is the way to construct harmony and unity among employees. Fayol desired the efficient team work by using extensive face-to-face verbal communication in order to accomplish this objective. It is important to stress that the 14 principles are not rigid and the principles enunciated are not aimed at being exhaustive. Fayol emphasized the universality of such principles and their applications are not only to business but also for the success of all associations. As Fayol mentioned in his book: â€Å"Seldom do we have to apply the same principle twice in identical conditions; allowance must be made for different changing circumstances†¦ Therefore principles[must be] flexible and capable of adaptation to every need; it is a matter of knowing how to make use of them which is a difficult art requiring intelligence, experience, decision, and proportion.† excerpt from General and Industrial Management. From these principles, Fayol concluded that management should interact with personnel in five basic ways in order to plan and control production. According to him, â€Å"To manage is to forecast and to plan, to organise, to command, to coordinate and to control†. He stated that management should be viewed as a process consisting of 5 elements which go hand in hand with the principles. Therefore, the management process was represented by these 5 elements are shown in figure 5. Figure 5: 5 Elements of Management Process Planning is one of the most important elements in ensuring business success as it predicts future events that determine the next move of the organization. Planning is related to forecast that examine how the future would be like; foresight, prevent and design actions in advance. It is necessary to identify what are the goals and how to accomplish them through a strategy, considering the realistic capabilities and resources to determine appropriate organizational goals. According to Fayol, â€Å"The best of plans cannot anticipate all unexpected occurrences which may arise, but it does include a place for these events and prepare the weapons which may be needed at the moment of being surprised†. Organizing involves ways which organizational structure is developed as well as the flow of communication and authority. Fayol argued that once a plan of action is designed, management need to put the plan into practice and organize the practicality of achieving those plans. Management also need to provide everything necessary to carry it out; including raw materials, tools, capital and human resources. This can be from recruiting the right staff, to organizing the restructuring of the structure of the company so it operates in an efficient manner. Commanding is how management direct staffs through effective communication and the use of discipline and remuneration. Management need to implement the plan and have an understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of their personnel. Fayol stated that management must encourage and direct personnel activity. Management must motivate their staff whilst at the same time meet the goals and target that have been set. Coordinating means that management must work to harmonize all the activities to facilitate organizational success. Communication is the prime coordinating mechanism. Fayol stated that management must make certain that personnel work together in a cooperative fashion. Put simply, things should work together effectively and efficiently. So when planning the structure of the organization, management need to make sure that different sections work and support each other in helping the organization do well. Controlling is the final element of management process involves the comparison of the activities of the personnel to the plan of action and it is the evaluation component of management. Fayol stated that management should monitor everything occurs in conformity with policy and ensure personnel follow their commands. Management have to make sure that any problems sufficient actions plans are put in place to rectify the problem. At the end of the day, it is management’s responsibility that the organization has done well. As Fayol mentioned in his book: â€Å"The responsibility of general management is to conduct the enterprise toward its objective by making optimum use of available resources. It is the executive authority, it draws up the plan of action, selects personnel, determines performance, ensures and controls the execution of all activities† excerpted from General and Industrial Management. Simple term, planning is the most important managerial function. Organizing and commanding function is necessary to execute plans. Coordinating is necessary to make sure that everyone is working together and controlling looks whether everything is proceeding according to the plan. Fayol believed that management ideas should be taught, managerial ability was required for businesses to succeed and management was a separate activity that applicable to all types of undertakings. He also believed that managerial practices were the key to predictability and efficiency in organizations. It is important to understand that it really needs intuition to propose such significant ideas in the environment where there are no clear boundaries of worker and management responsibilities, no clear indicate the effective work standards and no clear concepts about how organizations work and how they should be structured or managed. In this case, Henry Fayol offered universal managerial prescriptions for all organizations to solve the problems. Therefore, Fayol’s main contribution is in the point that he was the first management theorist who devised a complete set of general administrative management theory by suggesting what managers should do and how organizations constitute good management practices. He emphasized on the functionality and organizational structure, dividing the work in functional areas and implementing the general principles of any organization. Fayol’s theory views management as a profession that can be trained, developed and emphasized the broad policy aspects of top-level management. It underlined all elements necessary to organize and manage organization as a whole. And also, his practical list of principles helps managers learn how to organize and interact with their subordinates in an effective way. At the present, most of managers are using his theory as a guidelines that how they deal with the everyday problems of managing the entire organizations. This explains accurately that his theory is a great contribution to management and business studies. More than nine decades have passed since Fayol’s theory was proposed. As we are moving into the age of rapid industrial and technological development, we might think the elements and principles of management in his theory are only common sense at present. And even later, some scholars had adopted his theory as the basis and developed new modern management theories. Undoubtedly, Henry Fayol is rightly seen as a key influential contributor to administrative management of thought. It is essential to remark the achievement of Henry Fayol who through a laudable efforts, developed his labour career in a company in the area of the mining industry in his country, where he entered as engineer by profession at young age after being promoted to mines manager and retired as a managing director. He knew how to reorganize and manage the company, expand its business and at certain point he is credited with turning the company around from a threatened bankruptcy into a strong financial position by the time of his retirement at age 77. During Fayol’s last few years, he wrote down the classic book, ‘Administration Industrielle et Generale’ based on his personal experiences in his managerial lifetime. His work was a product of more than 50 years of practice and study of management. He dedicated all his efforts to promote the administrative management theory as a fundamental tool for the good performance of all kinds of organizations. He established the nowadays important 14 principles and necessary 5 elements that are management needed. Fayol’s achievement is as a result of his in depth studies and analysis of the reality of management; studying, analyzing and preparing his conclusions and his work in a personal and independent way. Once again, just as in the case of his excellent and classic works about the problems of the mines, the brilliant managing director and successful managing methods, would take his time to create a new classic success to form a new doctrine: ‘The General Management’. Hence, it has to be restated that his theory has a significant influence on modern management and lay down the foundation with a simple way of how management interacts with personnel. Nowadays, all organizations consider his theory as a relevant guide to productively managing staffs, in order to manage the organizations more successful. As we know, management is the process of getting people that work towards to accomplish desired goals and objectives together; its main purpose is to help activities can be completed more efficiently and effectively. In this project, we found that Henry Fayol concentrated on top-level management and viewed management processes from the top down. His administrative management theory gives us comprehensive statements of general management and provides us valuable insights into managing effective and efficient organizations. It is clear that his theory is important and useful knowledge for all students who study about management issues. We students should learn his theory seriously in order to meet practical needs and apply it in our future career life.

International Entrepreneurship leads to greater cultural understanding

International Entrepreneurship leads to greater cultural understanding Globalization of the world market brings new possibilities as well as enormous hurdles for both established and young businesses. With the emergence of international entrepreneurship, entrepreneurs are concentrating on specific issues that they face operating in complex environments affected by diverse national cultures and institutional influences (Johanson Vahlne, 2009). New global entrepreneurs depend on global networks for resources, distribution, and designs for growth. International entrepreneurs realize that success in a new marketplace requires agility, ingenuity, and certainty with a global viewpoint to acquire sustainability. Thus, global thinking is beneficial since foreign business clients can choose ideas, products, and services from many countries and cultures. However, entering into a foreign environment and culture can also become an obstacle psychologically in and of itself for the individual international entrepreneur (Mitchell et al., 2002). This paper will examin e two areas that focus on the importance of cultural understanding in international entrepreneurship. The first will comprise of how entrepreneurs who expand into international markets must know how to think globally in order to design and adopt strategies for different nations as a business ventures into an uncertain market. The second part will explore how psychological adaptation of the individual entering a foreign culture is interconnected with the international entrepreneur. Entrepreneurs can expand their business by participating in the global market; as every year thousands of small business enterprises are actively engaged in the international field. International entrepreneurship studies have started to focus on specific topics that confront entrepreneurs as they expand their new ventures (Zahra, Korri, Yu, 2005). The definition of international entrepreneurship in this paper will focus on the process of creatively discovering and exploiting opportunities that lie outside of a firms domestic markets in the pursuit of competitive advantage (Zahra George, 2002); across national borders, to create future goods and services (Oviatt McDougall, 2005). This meaning incorporates the process aspect of international entrepreneurship, which focuses on a central issue of why some individuals exploit international opportunities while others equally well placed do not act on them (Zahra, Korri, Yu, 2005). Globalization is a process fuelled by increasing cross border flows of goods, services, money, people, information, and culture (Held et al., 1999, p. 16). However, the use of this term will refer to Guillà ©ns (2001) definition of globalization as a process leading to greater interdependence and mutual awareness among participants in general. Guillà ©n (2001) combines the understanding of globalization as the intensification of consciousness of the world as a whole, and as the diffusion of practices, values and technology that have an influence on peoples lives worldwide (Guillà ©n, 2001). Noticing opportunities is normally more difficult in international settings, and the level of uncertainty that the potential entrepreneur must undergo will also be greater. Entrepreneurs able to function successfully in international settings may be both more skilled at noticing opportunities and have a greater capacity to endure the uncertainty associated with international entrepreneurship (Lu Beaamish, 2001). Noticing opportunities is normally more difficult in international settings, and the level of uncertainty that the potential entrepreneur must endure will also be greater (Coviello, 2006). Oviatt and McDougall (2005) emphasized that international entrepreneurs display the intention to compete in multiple locales at the inception of the firm to exploit existing international opportunities and would have the intention to do so when they started their firms (McNaughton, 2003). Starting a firm is a difficult process under the best of circumstances. International business scholars have traditionally argued that internationalization is difficult because firms had to overcome a liability of foreignness, although Johanson and Vahlne (2009) have recently acknowledge that being part of an effective network and prior knowledge can greatly accelerate the international entrepreneurship process. This liability of foreignness was based on the fact that firms and entrepreneurs lacked knowledge about doing business in other countries, which meant they had to endure the costs of learning and the discomfort of uncertainty (Lu Beaamish 2001). However, by positioning themselves in relevan t networks, or because of their past experience, many entrepreneurs have high levels of operational knowledge about foreign markets. In this manner, the traditional approaches for dealing with the liability of foreignness of either imitating local firms or by transferring unique organizational or managerial competences to their foreign unit (Sapienza et al., 2006) have been supplemented with a knowledge component, which is more related to uncertainty. There has been an acknowledgement that firms could begin to internationalize sooner and Sapienza et al. (2006, p. 915) suggest that the earlier a firm internationalizes, the more deeply imprinted its dynamic capability for exploiting opportunities in foreign markets will be. Others have pointed out the benefits of internationalizing earlier, or at least exporting at an earlier stage (Kundu Katz 2003). This may be because although there is a cost to learning, early entrants begin this process sooner (Autio, Sapienza, Almeida, 2000) an d at least some suggest they should do this before they actually start the firm (Coviello, 2006). An entrepreneur who would like to take advantage of international markets may have to study a foreign language, may have lived abroad and may be face with culture shock. Entrepreneurs must realize their companys competitive advantage such as: technology, price, financial superiority, or marketing, product innovation, an efficient distribution network or possession of exclusive information about the foreign market (Sapienza et al., 2006). Declining market conditions at home may cause entrepreneurs to seek foreign markets to help their business. Successful global entrepreneurs should have the following characteristics: a global vision, international management experience, innovative marketing or technology processes, a strong international business network, and effective organizational coordination worldwide (Lee, Peng, Barney, 2007). When global opportunities occur, entrepreneurs are likely more open-minded about internationalizing. The advantage of international trade is that a companys market is expanded much and growth prospects are greatly raised. Other advantages include minimizing seasonal slumps, reducing idle capacity, getting knowledgeable about products not sold in target markets, technology used in other countries, and learning about other cultures (Johnson, Lenartowicz, Apud, 2006). Before going to a foreign market, it is essential to study the unique culture of the potential consumers. Concepts of how the product is used, psychographics, demographics, and political norms as well as legal normally differ from an entrepreneurs home country (Miller Parkhe, 2002). De Tienne Chandler (2004) suggest that entrepreneurs must consider five factors relative to the country and cultures that the business venture will inhabit. First, they must study foreign government regulations: patent, import regulations, t rademark laws, and copyright that affect their products. Second, they must know political climate: relationship between business and government or public attitudes and political events in a given country affect foreign business transactions. Third, they must consider infrastructure: packaging, distribution system, and shipping of their export product. Fourth, they must research distribution channels: accepted trade both retail and wholesale, service charges and normal commissions, distribution agreements and laws pertain to agency. And fifth, they must study competition: number of competitors in target nations and their market share, as well as their price, place, product and promotion. Additionally, they must find market size: of their product stability, size, country by country, and know what nations are markets expanding, opening, maturing, or declining (De Tienne Chandler, 2004). Eventually, entrepreneurs must understand culture of their products. Small businesses can study int ernational cultures by business travel, participating in training programs, reading the current literature, and undertaking formal educational programs. Small business, who wants to sell product on a worldwide basis must realize different standardization in each country. In some cases, goods must be adapted for different local markets if it is to be accepted and consumer goods always require much more adaptation (Johanson Vahlne, 2009). One issue related to international opportunity is why individuals in home countries are not the ones that take action on these opportunities, which would seem logical, as they are better positioned to notice. This question is especially important because research indicates that local firms usually have higher levels of performance than do foreign firms (Miller Parkhe, 2002). While the matter of liability of foreignness is present in some cases, this relates to firms competing in the same industry. Thus, when locals begin to imitate the foreign firm, they may in fact end up with higher levels of performance, because of factors such as lower lawsuit awards (Mezias, 2002). However, national average levels of entrepreneurship to uncertainty, opportunity, and cognition uncertainty avoidance are not identical across countries (Hofstede, 2001). This suggests that although it is possible that both a local and foreigner notice a specific opportunity at the same time, the local may not act fo r both the fear of failure and stigma attached to that failure in certain cultures (Lee, Peng, Barney, 2007). Thus, the potential entrepreneur must also be willing to endure the uncertainty associated with acting on these opportunities. To gain insight into effective professional task performance across cultures, an understanding of effective communication and psychological adaptation has to be complemented by an exploration of the effect of culture on task process. Over the last few years studies on cross cultural competencies in different professional fields have started to emerge. Examining the relationship between national culture and entrepreneurship is an important emerging subject matter in international entrepreneurship (Hayton, George, Zahra, 2002). The sociological viewpoint on entrepreneurship proposes that entrepreneurs are intertwined in a social framework and their cognitive process and behaviours are shaped by the interactions between the environment and entrepreneur (Zahr, Korri, Yu, 2005). There is also evidence of the impact of national cultural values on the characteristics and behaviour of individual entrepreneurs (Mitchell et al., 2002). Mitchell et al. (2002) confirmed that entrepreneurs share a set of cultural values, regardless of their national origin or cultural background. However, it appears that whilst some core values are shared across different countries and cultures, some of the behaviours of individual entrepreneurs reflect the value system of their respected national culture. With regards to adaptation in international entrepreneurship, entering into a foreign environment is not a transition for the business venture alone. The actors, international entrepreneurs, involved are also plunging into same the foreign environment (Hofstede, 2001). Entering a new culture means commencing to share a pattern of thinking, feeling, reacting, and problem-solving (Saee, 1999). Cross-cultural psychology argues that unfamiliar cultural territory negatively affects an individuals affective, both the sense making and cognitive mechanisms, and undermines the appropriateness and effectiveness of their behavioural responses (Maznevski Lane, 2004). This happens when individuals are unable to accurately perceive and interpret the alien cultural environment, nor explain or predict the behaviour of people with different cultural backgrounds (Maznevski Lane, 2004). Evidence suggests that exposure to a foreign cultural environment can cause culture shock, a psychological conditio n which adversely affects psychological and affective states (Johnson et al., 2006). Saee (1999) contends that opportunity identification competencies developed in an entrepreneurs home cultural environment may not be sufficient to perceive a high level of entrepreneurial self-efficacy about performing the task of identifying opportunities across borders and cultures. Cross-cultural studies have explored the challenges that a foreign cultural environment poses to human behaviour, cognition, and professional performance. Human behaviour is considered the coping mechanism that individuals consequently develop. Some researchers suggest that building this coping mechanism, in individuals, amounts to developing a global mindset or cultural intelligence (Maznevski Lane, 2004; Early Mosakowski, 2004). According to Maznevski and Lane (2004, p. 172), a global mindset is the ability to develop and interpret criteria for personal and business performance that are independent from the assumptions of a single country, culture, or context; then to adequately implement those in different countries, cultures, and contexts. Cultural intelligence is seen as the ability to interpret the foreigners behaviour the way the foreigners countryman would (Earley Mosakowsi, 2004). Cross-cultural competence is defined as the appropriateness and effectiveness of ones behavi our in a foreign cultural environment (Mitchell et al., 2000). Psychological adaptation is considered the centre point of personal traits and attributes that help generate internal responses in an unfamiliar environment by managing stress (Saee, 1999). Successful adaptation to a host cultural environment requires the abilities to be mindful, to tolerate ambiguity, and the ability to explain and make accurate predictions of strangers behaviour (Saee, 1999). This also includes the levels of anxiety and uncertainty that affect the intercultural encounter (Saee, 1999). CONCLUSION: International entrepreneurs actually face greater uncertainty than is generally common in more established businesses, which benefit from learning and experience, because international entrepreneurship is about the implementation of a new innovative business. There is an uncertainty to entrepreneurship and the role it plays in initiating the process. Mitchell et al., (2000) observes that entrepreneurial action is a result of overcoming and paralysis that is caused by the uncertainty that precedes the entrepreneurial act. Guillà ©n (2001) adds that the key concept that entrepreneurs create new combinations, which become the innovations that are the engine of economic growth. The entrepreneur is likely to see the opportunity as relatively certain. This is important with regards to international entrepreneurship in that exploiting an international opportunity requires more than dealing with operational certainty; there is also a high level of cultural uncertainty that the entrepreneur has to endure to ensure the new ventures prosperity. The volume of research on international entrepreneurship supports the notion that a period of domestic development is no longer necessary for many firms and that international entrepreneurship is possible at the time the firm is established or shortly thereafter. However, consideration must be taken with respect to the foreign culture a venture will go into and the psychological affects upon the entrepreneurs joining in the venture. Effective operation in the globalised economy requires that entrepreneurs develop new skills and competencies. Some of these skills and competences are needed to deal with national and regional cultural differences that are becoming intense with the continuance of globalisation (De Tienne Chandler, 2004). (Authors) believe that current and future international entrepreneurs need to develop cross-cultural competence to successfully identify business opportunities.

Communication and information handling

You should be able to complete this observation in the course of your normal duties as you implement a care plan. It may be best if the individual you choose to communicate with is someone you have not spent much time with before. You need to get the permission of the others involved for the assessor to observe you in your work tasks. As an alternative to your assessor, you may, with your assessor's agreement, arrange for an expert witness to observe and write an account of this observation. Your assessor will want to see you communicating with the individual, with your colleagues and with others, in the best way for them.Your assessor will also be looking out for: a) how you find out and meet the individual's needs, wishes and preferences in b) how you reduce barriers to communication c) how you check that your communication has been understood d) how you seek advice about communication e) how you demonstrate confidentiality when talking to your colleagues and others f) how you take into account the individual's preferences about their care plan and the likelihood of danger or harm arising from their choices Your assessor may ask you some follow-up questions about using a care plan and risks.When preparing for the professional discussion with your assessor you will need to consider how to seek advice, support and information about a range of topics including: effective communication confidentiality equality, diversity and inclusion partnership working and resolving conflicts. Your assessor will plan the content of your professional discussion and will advise you to help you to prepare beforehand. The professional discussion may cover more than this section of your Assessment Workbook.Discussion process The discussion process will offer you the opportunity to show that you know how and when to seek additional guidance and information in a variety of situations. The assessor will also wish to discuss how you To prepare for your professional discussion, you shoul d think about how you could answer questions such as the following: Within your workplace, who should you go to for information, advice and support? When should you approach someone in your organization for information, advice and support? Who should you approach outside your own organization for information, advice When should you approach them? How should you find out this information from different sources? How useful is the information from each source? Is there anything you could do differently when you try to find out information in the future?

The Role of the Nephron

The Roles of the Nephron of the 120 ml of blood that is filtered by the kidneys each minute, only I ml (that's less than I%) turns into urine that will eventually leave the body (after approximately 300 – 400 mis of it accumulates to fill the bladder! ) That leaves 119 ml of fluid called filtrate to be returned back to the blood stream. Good thing, otherwise you would have to micturate (pee, urinate) once every 3 minutes and drink 1 L of fluid every 10 minutes in order to maintain Homeostasis!!!The one million nephrons in each human kidney are amazingly efficient at selectively removing wastes from the blood while at the same time conserving water, salt ions, glucose and other needed materials. The nephrons accomplish this task in 3 main steps; these 3 steps are also called the 3 main roles of the nephron: Filtration, Reabsorption and Secretion. Fiftratffln Filtration is aecomplished by the movement of fluids from the blood into the Bowman's capsule. Beabsorpttort Reatuorptias wolves the selective transfer of essential solutes and water back into the blood.Secretion Secretion Involves the movement of wastes from the blood into the mphron. 1. Filtration The renal artery carries blood into the kidney (approximately 600 mis of blood enters a kidney each minute). The renal artery then branches into arterioles which then branch intoaspecialized capillaries called the glomerulus. Because of the great difference in diameter between the renal artery and the glomerul us, blood entering the glomerulus is under very high pressure. This pressure forces about 20% of the blood plasma (about 120m1 of the 600 ml) out of the glomerulus and across the membrane of Bowman's capsule.Bowman's capsule acts to â€Å"filter† or separate some of the substances that are located in blood plasma from others. This is because some substances are small enough to fit through the pores of the membrane of Bowman's capsule and some are too large and thus do not enter Bowman's capsul e with the rest of the blood plasma. Water, salt ions (sodium, potassium and choride), glucose molecules, amino acids and urea molecules are all small enough to go through the membrane pores into Bowman's capsule. Blood cells (rbc, wbc and platelets) and proteins on the other hand are too large to leave the capillaries or enter Bowman's capsule.The fluid inside of Bowman's capsule gets a name change; it is now called â€Å"filtrate† because it is blood plasma that has been filtered, This filtrate is identical to blood plasma minus the blood cells and proteins. Filtrate is said to be isotonic to blood plasma with respect to its concentration of water, salt ions, glucose, amino acids and urea. The filtrate will then proceed from Bowman's capsule through the rest of the nephron in the following order: proximal convoluted tubule, loop of henle, distal convoluted tubule and finally the collecting tubule.From the collecting tubule, the filtrate will enter the pelvis of the kidney a nd be called urine. 2. Reabsorption Useful materials such as sugars and salt ions are reabsorbed back into the blood stream. That is, materials that could still be used by the body are sent back to the blood. Reabsorption happens as filtrate passes sequentially through the nephron. Materials re-entering the blood stream do so through the capillary network surrounding the nephrons. In short, â€Å"good† stuff is sent from the nephron back into the blood. A.Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCn: As the filtrate enters the PCT approximately 80% of the salt ions (sodium and potassium), glucose and amino acids are ACTIVELY TRANSPORTED out of the PCT and back into the blood stream by special â€Å"pumping† cells located in the walls of the PCT. The process of active transport requires energy. Energy in the form of ATP is supplied by the numerous mitochondria that are embedded in the walls of the PCT. Because of ionic attraction, negatively charged chloride ions (CI-) will flow pas sively out of the PCT as they are attracted by the positively charged sodium and potassium ions (Na+, K+).As the concentration of the above mentioned solute molecules drops inside of the PCT, water then diffuses out of the PCT and into the capillary network passively by the process of OSMOSIS. The lining of the PCT contains microvilli to increase the surface area over which this reabsorption can occur. B. Descending Loop of Henle: As the filtrate travels into the descending Loop of Henle, both sodium and potassium ions passively diffuse from the salty tissues of the surrounding medulla BACK INTO the Loop of Henle. (Although this is eabsorption of materials, the materials are not going back into the blood stream at this point). At the same time, water continues to move out of the Loop of Henle and into the capillary network by osmosis. The filtrate at this point is more concentrated (hypertonic) with respect to salt ions than it was in the PCT, both because water has been removed fro m it, and because salt ions have been again added to it. C. AscendineLoop of Henle As the filtrate proceeds up into the ascending Loop of Henle, the choride ions are actively pumped back out of the nephron.Because of ionic attraction, sodium ions then passively follow the chloride ions out of the tubule and into the tissues of the medulla. These ions only move into the medulla and not back into the blood stream. Since the ascending Loop of Henle is impermeable to water, water cannot leave this part of the nephron. Because of this, the filtrate gets more dilute again. Because the opposite happens in the ascending and descending Loops of Henle, the process is called the COUNTER CURRENT MECHANISM. The process is also known as the CHLORIDE SfUFT.D. Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT) As the filtrate passes through this part of the nephron, water continues to passively diffuse out of the nephron and back into the blood. Water continues to diffuse out of the DCT because the surrounding tissues of the medulla are now very salty due to so much sodium and chloride ions accumulating there. The salty tissues attract the water out of the DCT because the medulla is hypertonic with respect to salt concentration when compared with the salt concentration of the filtrate (now hypotonic).Water that enters the medulla will then diffuse back into the blood stream. Because of the continual re-absorption of water, the filtrate becomes more and more concentrated with wastes, mainly urea. The amount of water that diffuses can be regulated by a hormone called ADH. The amount of water that diffuses from the DCT back into the blood depends on the needs of the body; if the body is dehydrated, more water will go back into the blood, and less will be left in the nephron to make less urine.The opposite occurs if the body is over hydrated. E. Collectin g Tubule C The same thing that occurs in the DCT also occurs in the CT 3. Secretion Occurring at the same time as reabsorption is a process called secretion. Secretion is when a cell releases a substance to its outside†¦ in this case, non-useful and toxic substances are ACTIVELY TRANSPORTED from the blood into the nephron – usually in the regions of the distal and proximal convoluted tubules.Substances which are secreted include excess acid (H+) or base (OH-) ions, excess glucose (high glucose levels are found in diabetic urine or urine of someone who has recently consumed a large amount of sugar-this is the kidney's way of helping to ensure that the blood sugar level doesn't get too high), ammonia, and drugs (this is why urine is used from many drug tests – the breakdown of many drugs including marijuana, cocaine, heroin, sleeping pills, codeine and many other medications can be detected even in minute amounts in the urine).The process of secretion ensures that materials that are potentially harmful to the body are quickly disposed of by being â€Å"dumped† into the fluid that is about to become uri ne. Secretion happens mainly in the regions of the DCT and CT but some also occurs in the PCT. In short, secretion involves â€Å"bad† stuff being removed from the blood being sent to the urine. of the loop after chlorine. The sodium rushes The Counter Current Mechanism of the Nephron out by diffusion because of its ‘fatal attraction' to chlorine.The chlorine and the sodium ions collect and dominate the fluids outside the loop The loop of Henle works toward the goal of water conservation. Animals that live in a terrestrial environment need to be careful not to waste water. It is clearly a waste,if water is in short supply, to release too much water with the urine. As a result there needs to be a mechanism to encourage water out of the urine and back into the blood. The loop of Henle creates that animals.There i s no way of actively capturing water in the urine that is passing through the collecting ducts. It would almost seem too late to capture the water that is alread y on its way out of the body. However, the nifty nephron creates a trick with its loop of lienle to get the water out of the collecting duct before it leaves the kidney, kidney. The ascending loop of Henle actively transports chlorine ions out of the filtrate with carrier proteins. Chlorine builds up in the fluids of the medulla by active transport.Because it is a negative ion, it creates a cause for the sodium ion, which is positive, to rush out It does so by creating a salty environment in the medulla area of the mechanism in terrestrial of I-fenle creating a salty environment. This salty environment catches the attention of the water that is passing through the nearby collecting duct. salt. The collecting duct is permeable to water but not permeable to the Water can. not resist moving into the The salt creates an osmotic salty medulla. pressure that pulls the water out of the collecting duct by osmosis. Water has a ‘fatal attraction' to salty solutions. ) Once the water is out of the duct it is no longer destined for elimination but can' now be picked up by the nearby. ,Mood capillaries and returned to be used by;. body systems. Meanwhile, back at the loop of`-†¢Henle, trouble is starting. The ascending loop is running out of salt. There is no need to worry. The salt trick can continue because the descending loop in its wisdom is stealing back the salt that the ascending loop is so generously releasing.This helps to keep a constant flow of salt inside the loop for the ascending lope to pump out . Because of the generosity gfthe ascending loop and the stinginess of the descending loop a salt trade or salt current is established as the salt moves ouc of the ascen ding loop and into the descending loop, This salt current established by the loop of lienle maintains an environment that attracts water out of the ducts containing urine and back into the blood.This process is called the counter current mechanism. (ER 25 EXCRETION AND WE BALANCING OF WATE R AN Cl ruti†n i Tubular secretion Nctwp -i> Urea _, How Materials Move Into and Out of the Nephron As Urine Forms. As a Al. nephron extends through the kidney's cortex and medulla and dumps urine into the collecting duct, various substances enter and leave the filtrate. Broken lines represent segments of the nephron wall that are permeable to water, while solid lines represent wall segments impermeable to water.Narrow arrows represent passive diffusion of materials into or out of the nephron tubule, while wide arrows represent active transport against concentration gradients. Filtration activities are shown in blue, tubu. l ‘eabsorption activities in green, and tubular secretion in yellow. U ne is shown as yellow. traces nephron function and material movements step by step. The t FU†,t. Ic r1